Introduction

In this essay, I endeavor to identify what I consider to be the most relevant learning theory as it pertains to Electrical Trade Education. Merriam & Bierema (2014) state, “Behaviorism is particularly evident in adult career and technical education… Much of adult vocational education is focused on identifying skills needed for specific occupations, [and] teaching those skills from basic to expert levels” (p. 28). Although I don’t disagree that behaviorism plays an important role in on-the-job training, I feel the technical training portion of the electrical apprenticeship program best fits the cognitivist model.

In the following sections of the essay I will summarize cognitivist theory as it relates to adult education, provide highlights of cognitivism, and explain why I feel this particular theory fits the technical training portion of the electrical program. Afterwards, I will explore the roles of the learner and instructor in cognitivism and, finally, provide three real world examples of how I intend to use this theory in my classroom.

Cognitivism Highlights

“Known as cognitivist or information-processing, this theory represent[s] a shift in the locus of learning from the environment (behaviorists), or the whole person (humanists), to the learner’s mental processes.” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 31). This revolutionary theory gained traction in the late 1950s as “Psychologists and educators began to de-emphasize a concern with overt, observable behavior and stressed instead more complex cognitive processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing” (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 50). It would seem that a central point in cognitivism is an emphasis on the thought process behind the action that behaviorism would typically assess for.

According to Merriam & Bierema (2014), key concepts in cognitivism are a “focus on insight (the moment when a solution to a problem becomes clear), information processing, problem solving, memory, and the brain” (p. 32). Key areas of research relevant to cognitive adult education are “cognitive development, memory, and instructional design theories” (p. 32).

Insight is an interesting thing as it is borne not of trial and error, but of the higher order thinking skills required to visualize a problem internally, and problem solve before taking any physical action. This process was articulated in the theory of Insight Learning by 1920s German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler. (Clause, n.d.)

Information processing ability is related to cognitive development, and for that we’d be remiss if we didn’t mention pioneering theorist, Piaget. He created a four-stage model of cognitive development containing the “infancy stage of sensory-motor response to stimuli… the early childhood stage of being able to represent concrete objects in symbols and words (called “preoperational”), to [the] understanding concepts and relationships of middle childhood (concrete operational), to being able to reason hypothetically and think abstractly called formal operational.” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 32) (Emphasis added). It is my opinion that students in the electrical apprenticeship routinely fall within the latter two stages of cognitive development.

Insight, information processing, problem solving, and memory formation are all functions of our brain. This essay will not delve into any of the deeper theory of how our brains go about these processes. Instead, it will focus on the cognitive instructional design theories of Ausubel and Gagne that attempt to align our methods of teaching with how our brains process and store information.

Why I chose Cognitivism

In my search for a relevant theory for electrical instruction, I was torn between behaviorism and cognitivism. On one hand, ultimately trades workers must produce to remain employable. It is extremely important that apprentices know how to physically perform all the tasks required of them, and assessment should reflect this. This fits neatly in the behaviorism model. Ultimately, I chose cognitivism because most of the production style learning is on-the-job.

My role in developing apprentices is in a university setting; I teach the theory behind the practice. I am interested in cognitivism because I feel it is our job as electrical instructors to elicit understanding of the theories behind how electricity works. Because electricity cannot be seen, we must rely on instruments to tell us what it is doing. The instruments are only as useful as the person wielding them, and for that reason, it is not enough to teach people how to plug numbers into math equations. We must focus on the thought process, the true understanding, leading to the mathematical answer.

Role of the Learner

In cognitivism, Schuell notes the focus is on the “mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response” (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 51). For this, the student must not just answer a problem, but explain the reasoning behind their choice. Successful students will go further and teach other students the reasoning behind their work in study groups, classroom exercises, and as lab partners.

For cognitive teaching strategies to be successful, students must also be actively engaged. Theorist Ausubel suggested the use of advanced organizers to help link new knowledge to learners’ existing cognitive structure. (Mirriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 34). The learner can benefit from joining the conversation during examples and classroom discussion. This will aid in making advanced organizers such as rules, analogies, or scenarios relevant to them personally.

Role of the Instructor

Gagne’s instructional design theory includes nine Events of Instruction: “gaining attention; informing learners of the objective; stimulating recall of prior learning; presenting the content; providing ‘learning guidance’; eliciting performance; providing feedback; assessing performance; enhancing retention and transfer” (Gagne & Medsker, 1996, p. 140). These Events are very useful for adult education in particular. By bringing up examples from the learner’s history, the instructor is simultaneously getting their attention, stimulating recall of a prior learning situation, and respecting their experiences. I believe the central position of the instructor in the above Events is that of a facilitator of learning. The instructor is a subject matter expert, but acts more as a guide.

I believe it is necessary to take the role of facilitator because, in electrical theory, the student ultimately needs to develop the skills to see current flow in the Mind’s Eye. They must imagine voltage being carried, and dispersed in the circuit. This can be described with mathematics, but ultimately, students will not be successful without being able to truly understand, to see the invisible. We must facilitate that; we can’t just tell them how it works.

Three Classroom Examples

My first example of using cognitivism in the classroom is when introducing the concept of meter loading. That is, merely by using a voltmeter or ammeter in a circuit, you end up changing the circuit sufficiently that one cannot rely on the measurements the meters are taking. My approach would start with classroom discussion, recalling past lab experience using meters. In particular, we’d ponder how lab results are never 100% of the theoretical values. Why might this be? I would gain interest in the subject by putting the thought out there that: meters are not magical measuring instruments; they are electrical in nature and so must influence the circuit in some way. I would then introduce the term “meter loading” and explain the basic electrical theory behind it. I would solve circuits on the board while thinking out loud, allowing students to mirror my rationale and thought processes. After, we would proceed to the lab and perform labs specifically designed to show meter loading in effect. Students would first have to calculate the theoretical values, and then see different loading based on the meter being analog or digital. This is often a great lab to do as students frequently think they’ve made a mistake until they have the “Aha!” moment and realize they’re in a loading situation. I would reinforce this knowledge by having them draw out the circuit and explain why they’re getting the value they are.

The second classroom situation would involve teaching Edison 3-wire circuits. Edison 3-wire circuits represent a standard single phase 120V/240V service one would typically find in a residential dwelling. The theory behind which direction currents are flowing and how voltages are divided is involved and requires building on a fair bit of previous knowledge. To aid in understanding analysis of these circuits I would gain interest by suggesting that the common way we think of these circuits is wrong, and tell an anecdote about an instance where a journeyman of mine broke a neutral in a 3-wire circuit and ended up lighting a fluorescent light on fire and destroying a TV. I would then provide advanced organizers by speaking very generally about Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, about how current cannot disappear and how electrons are drawn from points of lower potential to higher potential. From there we would get into formal instruction on how the currents flow, voltages drop, and what happens when the neutral in an Edison 3-wire circuit is broken. This process would involve a lot of recall of previously learned information regarding series and parallel circuits. We would reinforce this knowledge with worksheets and lab time. Students would have an opportunity to help each other, thus reinforcing their own understanding, as well as access myself for guidance. The lab time would be most valuable because the students would get real time feedback on their learning by setting up Edison 3-wire circuits with lightbulbs. They would load the circuit up with different resistance bulbs, and visually see the effects of breaking a neutral in balanced vs unbalanced loads by observing lamp brightness.

The third example of cognitivism in the classroom is in teaching how to perform house calculations in the Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) (Canadian Standards Association, 2015). Rule 8-200 of the CEC governs the sizing of electrical services in single family dwellings. We would start again by using Ausubel’s advanced organizers by reviewing the rule as a group and recall their experience in the field of different sizes of services they’ve built, and what kind of equipment the dwelling had. From there I would develop a scenario on the board using a students’ house as an example. I would then go through the process of how to take this basic information about building size and major loads, to come up with an ampacity number for service size. I would think out loud and allow students to mirror my thought process. While solving this problem, I would start to develop a list of steps on how to solve a house calculation for students to refer to. The last step would be to make an interactive game where the class could split into groups of two, trading details about their houses (imagined or real) and creating problems for their partners to solve. The problems could be shared about, and students would need to justify their reasoning for coming to the number they determined.

Summary

Cognitivism is a learning theory which “emphasize[s] making knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in memory” (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 53). I have shown 3 examples of how I would apply cognitivist theory to the classroom to help achieve this, as well as outline key aspects of what I believe to be the instructor’s role in being a facilitator of learning. Further, I’ve identified the role of the student as being an active learning participant by being engaged in the classroom. Because the role of an electrical instructor is primarily related to electrical theory, I believe the cognitivist approach, focusing on information processing, insight, and problem solving is the best approach to teaching the technical training portion of the electrical apprenticeship.

References

Canadian Standards Association (CSA) (2015). Canadian Electrical Code, Part 1. Mississauga, ON: CSA.

Clause, C. (n.d.). Insight Learning – Wolfgang Kohler: Theory, Definition & Examples. Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/insight-learning-wolfgang-kohler-theory-definition-examples.html

Ertmer, P. A. & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26 (2) PP. 43 – 71. DOI: 10.1002/piq.21143

Gagne, R. M., & Medsker K. L. (1996). The conditions of learning: Training applications. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Merriam, S. B. & Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

PID 3100 – Assignment 4: Reflection 2 has us reflecting on quotes out of Merriam & Bierema’s Adult Learning – Linking Theory and Practice textbook. I chose my second reflective writing assignment to be on Merriam & Bierema’s quote :

“learning from one’s experience involves not just reflection, but critical reflection” (p. 117)

Below is the full text of my reflection.

Assignment 4: Reflection 2

Objective

My second reflective writing assignment will be on Merriam & Bierema’s (2014) quote “learning from one’s experience involves not just reflection, but critical reflection” (p. 117). Here, Merriam & Bierema are exploring “a more postmodern and critical stance on reflective practice” (p. 117). We can interpret “critical reflection” as reflection involving critical thinking. Brookfield (as cited in Merriam & Bierema, 2014) defines critical thinking as “the ability to assess your assumptions, beliefs, and actions” (p. 222).

Reflective

This quote caught my attention because, at first glance, it doesn’t appear to be a very profound thought. One must look at the definition of reflection to see what Merriam & Bierema are saying. Gage Canadian Dictionary defines reflection as merely “thinking; careful thinking” (Gage Educational Publishing Company, 1983, p. 946). It is in this simplistic definition that I can see the need to stipulate critical reflection as a key component to learning. I question the validity of the quote as my interpretation of the language is that you must critically reflect on your experience in order to derive any educational value from it.

Interpretive

My “Aha!” moment when reading this quote was the realization that this quote is very much context based. Adult Education covers many disciplines and to be sure, critical reflection is extremely important in many of them. Reflecting on how this quote pertains to the vast majority of skills taught in the trades, I don’t believe critical reflection is necessary for the procedural learning portion of the course.

One insight I gained from this quote is that when the experiential learning is relating to personal growth, it is absolutely necessary to reflect critically. It is not enough to think carefully about what happened to us. We must assess our assumptions, beliefs, and actions in an effort to determine what we could have done better and if we may have been wrong. As Scott Berkun puts it, “You can only learn from a mistake after you admit you’ve made it. As soon as you start blaming other people (or the universe itself), you distance yourself from any possible lesson” (Berkun, 2011).

Decisional

I don’t take issue with critical thinking, On the contrary, I believe it is very important in the trades. I take issue with the belief that experiential learning isn’t learning without critical reflection.

In my role of Instructor I will continue to teach procedural tasks such as how to solve math equations without much thought of reflection, critical or otherwise. The students will learn the method through repetition and need not reflect much on it beyond where they failed to follow the method.

When I come to lessons on safety and best work practices, then I will make use of critical reflection. In the trades it is often thought that safety standards are overkill and do not need to be followed. I believe a great deal of critical reflection on this point would be beneficial by showcasing specific situations where bad things do happen. I will prompt students to self-evaluate their own safety practices and have them think of ways to be safer to avoid such tragic situations.

References

Berkun, S. (2011). How to Identify and Learn From Your Mistakes. Retrieved from

http://lifehacker.com/5863490/how-to-learn-from-your-mistakes

Gage Educational Publishing Company (1983). Gage Canadian Dictionary. Toronto, ON:

Gage Publishing Limited.

Merriam, S. B. & Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons

PID 3100 – Assignment 2: Post #3 – “Aha!” Moment

Welcome to the third post in this series on Trends in Adult Education. To view the previous two posts click here and here.

I’ve chosen to reflect on the focus on Higher Order Thinking in Vocational Training. I came to my “Aha!” moment by reflecting on my journey through life that lead me to this point.

When I was in High School, the conventional wisdom was “Go into computers, there will always be jobs in that!” and “Get a degree if you want to make good money!”. Millions of kids bought into this line of thinking and enrolled into Computer Science and Bachelor degrees in hopes of a good adult life, myself included.

Like most academic programs, these programs have a certain portion of General Education courses. These courses are not directly related to the job you will be performing, but help to broaden your understanding of the world around you, giving you a more full and meaningful life. I got to experience this education first hand and can honestly say, it has made a difference.

After realizing the conventional wisdom of my youth was not in fact the path to economic success, I quit academia and entered the trades. The apprenticeship program was excellent at preparing me to be a good electrician. Unfortunately, the program mostly focuses on the theory behind the job, and not on development of the person.

Now I look at the world my son is growing up in. The conventional wisdom is now “Join a trade if you want to make good money!”. Millions of kids are now foregoing academic degrees and learning a trade. I think this is fundamentally a great thing for society but I think back to my days in academia and can’t help but think these kids are missing something profound in their vocational training.

As Kerka states in the ERIC article, Higher Order Thinking Skills in Vocational Education,

The ability to think creatively, make decisions, solve problems, visualize, reason, analyze, interpret, and know how to learn–these skills are most often mentioned in definitions of critical thinking. Characteristics of critical thinkers are perseverance, flexibility, metacognition, transfer of knowledge, problem orientation, open mindedness, use of quality standards, and independence (Lee 1989), a list that resembles many descriptions of the desirable qualities of the future work force.

In teaching our students Higher Order Thinking skills in the Trades, we are better preparing them for the challenges of our fast paced, ever changing modern world. We are also filling the General Education gap in vocational training.

PID 3100 – Assignment 2: Post #2 – Implications

In my previous post I introduced you to the two trends in adult education I’ll be writing on. I’d like to first focus on the Implications of Technology use in Adult Education.

From the Instructor

Technology use by the Instructor has increased dramatically. Instead of seeking guidance from colleagues, we often turn to a quick Google search to instantly find the answer to whichever question we may have. This is very empowering, but I believe sometimes, it may be best to turn away from this habit, and continue reaching out to colleagues. In my limited teaching experience, I have found that there is much to be learned not in necessarily knowing what the answer is, but how it is best taught. By having a seasoned instructor teach you, you are also learning their teaching method for the subject matter at hand.

The second trend in use by Instructors I’d like to look at is the Learning Management System, Moodle. Moodle is an online framework for educational content delivery. It is a very powerful tool, and the trend is to move more and more instructional content onto the internet. The implications of moving content online are the lightening of a teachers workload, but also a disconnect from knowing exactly how well a student is absorbing material. I will address this trend by moving study and reference material into Moodle, and keep classroom time for worksheets and interactive lessons. I believe this way students will benefit from having material available 24 hours per day, and I will be able to ensure they are keeping up in their comprehension in the course.

From the Student

In 2017, basically everyone in the western world is walking around with an internet enabled cellphone in their pocket. This powerful tool can answer just about any question they may have, instantly. In addition to that, there have been apps developed to handle most complex calculations that were required to be done by hand in the past. This has created a common question by students: Why do I have to learn this if I can just look on my phone?

This is a difficult question to answer at times. In my instruction I will address this trend by explaining the need to develop a deeper understanding of subject matter. Students may well be able to check an app to answer a specific work site question, but if they understand the math, science, or reasoning behind what they are searching, it will enable them to extrapolate what they know into situations where the app fails. This can also be invaluable when working in areas with limited cell service such as much of rural BC.

This segways into the second trend I’d like to look at: focusing on Higher Order Thinking in Vocational Training.

Vocational training has traditionally followed an apprenticeship model: a mentor demonstrates the physical skills, while explaining the theory behind the action, and the apprentice follows. We’ve expanded on this basic model by teaching the theory portion more in-depth in a classroom setting. This has worked well, but is starting to show flaws. Students are faced with the challenge of having outdated skills once they finish their apprenticeship.

The trend is to focus more on the understanding and reasoning behind why we do the things we do. Why the codes exist as they do. How the systems we work with actually function. I am a vocal proponent of this trend and will continue to teach the understanding behind the facts and figures traditionally taught in my trade. I believe the implications of this trend are a more robust workforce. By understanding underlying theory, students will hopefully be able to easily adapt to changing technology by building on the fundamental understanding they have.

For my reflections on this trend and to read about my “Aha!” moment, check out the third post in this series.

PID 3100 – Assignment 4: Reflection 1 has us reflecting on quotes out of Merriam & Bierema’s Adult Learning – Linking Theory and Practice textbook. I chose my first reflective writing assignment to be on Rogers’ quote:

“an educated person is one who has learned how to learn…how to adapt and change.” (p.31)

Below is the full text of my reflection.

Assignment 4: Reflection 1

Objective

For my first reflective writing assignment, I’ve chosen to reflect on Rogers statement (as cited in Merriam & Bierema, 2014) that, “[An educated person is one] who has learned how to learn… how to adapt and change” (p. 31). Here, Rogers was reflecting on the notion that in our fast paced modern world, it is not enough to merely learn facts; we must learn how to rapidly adapt to changing circumstances, and self-learn to address new challenges. In essence, we must redefine what it means to be educated.

Reflective

This quote caught my attention because it reminded me of some very motivating words spoken to me by an instructor I met in the Electrical Engineering program at UBC. I was scarcely 20 years old and found myself in uncharted waters as I entered university. Unaccustomed to the stresses and pacing of university life, I was sinking under the seemingly impossible problems posed by my instructor.

I felt completely ill prepared for the challenges of the Engineering program. I confided this, and the instructor explained that the engineering program was not about solving problems that have already been solved. It was about teaching us how to analyze a problem, identify shortcomings in our knowledge, and go about self-learning. In essence, they were teaching us how to learn and adapt.

This was a pivotal point in my educational journey. Up to that point, I was learning facts and skills to do a specific job. Viewing the program through this new perspective, I started to develop as a person; to learn how to learn.

Interpretive

Now in my 30s, I am sitting on the other side of the educational table. As a student, I took that instructor’s words to heart. I’ve used them as words to live by – to be a lifelong learner, to strive to be adaptable, and to not fear change. My “Aha!” moment was the realization that I can’t just live it. It is my responsibility as an instructor to teach it.

This fundamentally changed my view of the student – instructor relationship. I gained the insight that as an instructor, I must do more than convey analytical skills and information. I must teach students the value of self-learning, adaptation, and developing their whole self. As Briggs suggests to teachers in her 2015 article The Changing Role of The Teacher: “Don’t be a content expert; be a luminary. Be influential. Teach students how to think, laugh, share, fail, and succeed”.

Decisional

In Electrical education, it is important for the students to be able to analyze circuits, perform calculations, and interpret codes. Through insight from Rogers’ quote, I’ve come to realize it is equally important for students to be able to adapt to changing circumstances and have the ability to self-learn to address the challenges presented to them throughout their careers.

To this end, I will begin by addressing wiring methods while examining the Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) Part 1 (Canadian Standards Association, 2015). Apprentices will typically only learn their employers preferred wiring methods. These methods, although effective, may not be the most cost effective or labour efficient methods available for use today. I intend to have students tell me the method they use to accomplish a certain electrical task, and then examine the financial and labour requirements to perform the task that way. Their assignment will be to research the actual governing rules in the CEC, and challenge them to find a more efficient way.

It is my hope students will see the value in challenging the status quo and see the opportunity to change and adapt.

References

Briggs, S. (2015). The Changing Role of the Teacher: 5 Ways to Adapt. Retrieved from

http://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/the-changing-role-of-the-student-9-ways-to-adapt-in-2015/

Canadian Standards Association (CSA) (2015). Canadian Electrical Code, Part 1. Mississauga, ON: CSA.

Merriam, S. B. & Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

PID 3100 – Assignment 2: Post #1 – Trends.

Assignment

For this assignment, my learning partner and I were given the task of identifying 2 trends in adult education that are of interest to us, and writing a series of 3 blog posts on them. We’ve decided to write on the use of Technology in Adult Education and the shift in focus to Higher Order Thinking in Adult Education. For my partner’s take on these trends, check out her blog at mypidpblog.wordpress.com.

Technology in Adult Education

When speaking of Technology use in Adult Education, one must consider the perspective – use by the instructor, and use by the student. There has been a trend to move instruction online in the form of Learning Management Systems such as Moodle. From the student’s perspective, modern cell phones have put an infinitely big, instantaneously accessed library at their disposal 24 hours per day. How does this affect the education dynamic?

Higher Order Thinking in Adult Education

Gone are the days of the teacher standing at the front of the class, reciting facts for the students to memorize. In today’s classroom, the trend is to move beyond simple memorization. Instructors are developing methods to help foster critical thinking and understanding in their students. It is thought that these skills are truly required in today’s fast paced, ever-changing work environments. I’ve chosen to write specifically on Higher Order Thinking in Vocational Training.

Our research on these topics took us to many articles on the internet. We chose 2 articles to share with our readers; you can find them here and here.

I’ll explore the implications of these two trends in the next blog post.

PID 3100 – Assignment 2 has us reflecting on trends in Adult Education. My learning partner has chosen to write on the topic of Adult Education in a Technological Society. This is a broad subject, so she is specifically focusing on the Use of Technology in Adult Education. Below is a link to the article she is reviewing. The relevant section to her blog starts on Page 5 under the heading “Technology in Adult Education: The Practice Context”. Visit her blog to read her perspective on this trend at mypidpblog.wordpress.com.

TITLE: Adult Education in a Technological Society

AUTHOR: MELODY THOMPSON

PUBLISHER: PAACE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING VOL. 20

PUBLICATION DATE: 2011

For PID 3100 – Assignment 2, I’ve decided to analyze the trend of developing higher-order thinking in adult education.

Although this article is a little dated (1992), the concepts haven’t changed from more recent publications on the subject of higher order thinking, and I really relate to this article because it specifically looks at vocational education.

Please read, enjoy, and share your thoughts.

TITLE: Higher Order Thinking Skills in Vocational Education. ERIC Digest No. 127

AUTHOR: Kerka, Sandra

PUBLISHER: ERIC

PUBLICATION DATE: 1992-00-00